Wishes For Newborn On Christmas

Weefselkweek (Plant) I Techniek I Toepassingen I Laboratoria I

tissue culture (plant)

Tissue of root

Tissue is a method plants to increase under sterile conditions, often used to clones of a plant to produce. Tissue culture techniques may offer certain advantages over conventional propagation techniques including:

• The production of exact copies of plants that flower well and fruit, or have other desirable traits.
• To quickly produce mature plants
• The production of multiple plants in the absence of the required seeds or pollinators needed for fruit set.
• The regeneration of whole plants from plant cells that genetically modified are.
• production plants in sterile soil, resulting in a decreased risk of transferring diseases plant pests and .
• The propagation of plants that otherwise have very little chance germination and growth things as orchids and Nepenthes. To
• virus infection infection prevention and healthy plants quickly propagate the agriculture and horticulture .

tissue culture relies on the fact that many plant cells have the ability to grow a whole plant (totipotency ). Individual cells, cells without cell wall ( protoplasts ), parts of leaves or fewer roots can be used for new plants to generate culture media given the required nutrients and plant hormones added.

Techniques

Modern tissue culture is performed under aseptic conditions with filtered air. . Living plant materials from the naturally infected on the surface and sometimes in the tissues by microorganisms which antisepsis starting material (explants ) with chemical solutions is an important first step. Explants are then usually placed on the surface of a solid culture medium, but sometimes directly into a liquid medium, particularly when cell suspension cultures desired. Solid and liquid media are generally made inorganic salts and some organic nutrients vitamins and plant hormones. Solid media are prepared from liquid media with the addition of a gelling substance agar.

Callus Nicotiana tabacum

The composition of the medium, especially plant hormones and The nitrogen source ( nitrate versus ammonium salts or amino have profound effects on the morphology of tissues that grow from the original explant. For example, an excess auxin will often result in a proliferation of roots , while a surplus of cytokinin yield shoots. An imbalance between auxin and cytokinin will often lead to unorganized growth of cells or callus , but the morphology of the new growth will depend on the plant species and the composition of the medium. The skill and experience of the performer are important in assessing what types of replication and what types to exclude.

When new shoots arise in tissue culture, they can be cut and rooted by auxin production in plants, as adults, can be moved to soil to grow in greenhouses as normal plants.

Applications

tissue culture are widely used in plant science. There are also a number of commercial applications. Applications include:

• Micropropagation , used to produce large numbers of identical plants .. It is widely used in forestry and horticulture . Micropropagation can also be used in conservation biology and breeding endangered species . A plant breeder
• may use tissue cells to screen for characteristics such as resistance against herbicides.
• scale cultivation of plant cells in liquid culture in bioreactors as a source of secondary products such as recombinant proteins using recombinant DNA techniques . Deze eiwitten kunnen onder andere worden gebruikt in de biofarmacie
• Om ver verwante soorten te kruisen door fusie van protoplasten en de opkweek van de nieuwe hybride .
• Voor de kruisbestuiving van ver verwante soorten en vervolgens de toepassing van weefselkweek omdat het resulterende embryo anders zou afsterven.
• Voor de productie van dihaploïde planten uit haploïde cellijnen om sneller homozygote cellijnen in kweekprogranmma’s te verkrijgen. Dit gebeurt meestal door behandeling met colchicine , waat verdubbeling van het aantaal chromosomen veroorzaakt.
• If a tissue for transformation, followed by short break times from genetically modified plants or regeneration of transgenic plants.
• Certain techniques such as meristem culture of primary can be performed to plant virus infections without like to grow potatoes and many kinds soft fruit like strawberries and blackberries, but also bedding.

Laboratories

While some farms have their own laboratories the propagation of plants through tissue culture, there are a number of independent laboratories that provide propagation techniques. The Plant Tissue Culture Information Exchange ^[1] has listed a number of commercial tissue culture laboratories that apply. Because a tissue labor-intensive activity is not suitable for all plants on a commercial basis in a laboratory to be increased. In recent years, much tissue culture work moved to low wage countries, making the plants for a lower price can be produced.

Literature

There are few non-technical books on the subject, but "Plants from Test Tubes: Introduction to Micropropagation" ^[2] focuses on the curious hobbyist or professional grower who wants to become involved in micropropagation. A practical book on the micropropagation of orchids "Micropropagation of Orchids" by Joseph Arditti and Robert Ernst uitegeven by John Wiley and Sons, ISBN 0471549053 .

source: wikipedia

Preparation-h Slim Waist

Clonage I Clonage naturel I Clonage artificiel I Clonage humain

Clonage

The cloning means mainly two processes. Is a multiplication by natural or artificial identical to a living being that is to say with exact conservation of the genome for all offspring (clones). It is therefore a synonym of certain forms of asexual such as cuttings . It also caused the multiplication of a fragment of DNA through a micro-organism.

Thus, biology, the term cloning means several things:

• one hand, the fact of reproducing organisms for human beings genetically identical, this may apply to simple cells (cell cloning, by taking a single cell that is cultured in individually) or to animals - thus including human beings - and plants (reproductive cloning, cuttings). All these cells, or individuals, forms a single clone (as the gene is identical);
• other hand, a molecular biology technique of isolating a DNA fragment and multiply identically in the "favorite" in a DNA molecule "carrier" called a vector for amplification. This technique of molecular biology can be used for cloning part, only as a fragment of genetic material (DNA ), but also for the cloning of an entire gene to produce the corresponding recombinant protein. The "integration" is often performed using a vector , the most commonly used being a molecule of DNA called plasmid.

the scientific sense, cloning is to obtain a living being genetically identical to the parent who gives birth. It therefore opposes the reproduction requires two parents. However, do not confuse cloning with some forms of asexual such as parthenogenesis generation where we gametes, so meiosis. Children are not identical to their parents.

is often considered the true birth of twins (called monozygotic) in animals and in the man a form of cloning, more natural. This is not the case. Indeed, if both children are identical to each other (technically they form a clone) they are not derived from their parents and many sexual reproduction.

The term clone is used for the first time in 1903 by the botanist HJ Webber designating plants reproduced asexually by . This word will then be reused by JBS Haldane .

Cloning natural

In nature, cloning is nothing more than a mode of reproduction among those available to living beings. It is even more prevalent as it concerns all prokaryotic cells (division), almost all eukaryotic unicellular ( mitosis) with the exception of those who practice reproduction (involving the meiosis ), but also many multicellular plants and animals .

Some animals whose embryo is cut in two can yield two genetically identical individuals as is the case with hydra. In addition, the cells of complex organisms generally reproduce by cloning.

cloning may be naturally occurring in plants, in this case it is most often called vegetative propagation . It takes place by emission releases by layering natural, natural division of rhizomes or stolons .

Some plants emit releases, such as olive . When the ortet initial vieillit, il émet des rejets sur le pourtour de sa souche. Ces ramets deviennent ensuite autonomes et se séparent entre eux lors de la disparition de la souche initiale avec le temps. D'autres, comme les fraisiers , produisent des stolons , rameaux dont le bourgeon terminal s'enracine au contact d'un substrat favorable et reproduit ainsi, par marcottage naturel, une plante identique à la plante mère. Par bouturage naturel des morceaux de plante peuvent repousser s'ils se retrouvent placés dans de bonnes conditions, et redonner une plante adulte complète.

Cloning artificial

Cloning plant

In horticulture and culture techniques for plant reproduction by cloning can be performed in laboratory under greenhouse or field. They are applicable in many dicotyledonous producing meristems in abundance and some monocots as well (the banana plant can be propagated by releases, sugar cane cuttings ). One can cite the grafting , and cuttings that do not exist naturally in nature and other techniques, this time inspired by the natural vegetative propagation (the layering, thinning releases or division of rhizomes and stolons , etc..).

In the laboratory, the practice vitro culture of meristems (or other plant parts) producing embryos and plantlets complete (see somatic embryogenesis and zygotic embryogenesis ) . In vitro techniques are the only can be used for monocotyledonous as date palm, the palm oil .

behavior and form clones may differ depending on the part of the plant which is extracted from the cells used in their manufacture. For example in strawberry of adventitious stipular buds or strawberry leaves give clearer and more rounded. They have a different metabolism, a higher number of runners a floral receptacle shorter stamens with anthers larger, while the clone axillary himself is less well pollinated and produce fruit for this reason most often deformed, especially in the absence of pollinating agents ^{[ 1]}

animal cloning

In the animal kingdom, a step is taken to ^{XX th century} by cloning from differentiated cell nuclei implanted in previously enucleated oocytes . The technical success rates still low and has resulted in some species that is in its infancy. Accelerated aging problems seem to be related to the status of telomeres . Maybe this will prevent the extinction of several species like the giant panda or mountain gorilla.

The Chinese embryologist Tong Dizhou , was the first to clone an animal (a fish) in 1963 , 33 years before Dolly . He published his research in a scientific magazine that Chinese do not seem to have been translated at the time ^{[ 2]} .

This technique allowed to clone animals:

• Carpe : 1963 first artificial clone derived from this technique.
• Dolly, a ewe first cloned mammal in 1996 (born February 24 and 1997) from a specialized cell. She died in 2003 pulmonary disease What the sheep normally 11 or 12 years.
• "Cumulina" a cloned mouse 1997.
• "Marguerite," a cow , cloned by the INRA in 1998.
• "Millie", "Christa", "Alexis", "Carrel" and "Dotcom" 5 little pigs , cloned March 2000.
• "Noah", a gayal in January 2001, a species of wild ox, the first animal in danger of extinction.
• bulls : March 2001
• "Carbon Copy" or a carbon copy cat cloned end 2001.
• mouse : 2002
• Six rabbits , cloné en 2002 par l' INRA .
• « Idaho Gem », « Utah Pioneer », « Idaho Star », trois mules , clonées en 2003 .
• daim : 2003
• « Prometa », une jument , clonée en 2003 .
• « Ralph », le rat , cloné en 2003
• drosophile : 2004
• « Little Nicky », en 2004 , un chat , premier clone produit à but commercial.
• Le docteur Hwang, announces that the first cloned human cell, but a few months later he was forced to admit the deception.
• " Snuppy," a dog , 2005 cloned in South Korea by the controversial Dr. Hwang .
• "Paris Texas", a horse , cloned 2005.
• The first cloned primate is 2007 ^{[ 3]}
• "Injaz, the first camel, is cloned April 8, 2009

All these experiments shown that cloning of males is generally more sensitive than females. In addition, for reasons still unknown, only 5-10% of eggs produced and reimplanted produce viable clones or apparently healthy. We do not understand either why some cells to clone an organism is better than others.

A second step was taken before the new millennium by the cloning of a second generation (organization obtaining cloned from other organisms cloned) on mouse, then a bull .

In 2007, there are nearly a thousand of cloned pigs and cattle near 3000 ^{[ 4]} .

The clones are not exact copies [edit ]

Only the genetic material is transferred to the nucleus during cloning. The mitochondrial DNA rest of the cell receptor as well as the machinery required for transcription of DNA during the early stages of embryonic development. There is talk of epigenetic regulation. Similarly, environmental factors may change the fate of embryos. In practice, the cloned animals differ in several parameters and are less similar than monozygotic twins (having the same genetic) ^{[ 4]} .

Controversies

Advantages: Cloning, in vitro allows particular - low cost - production, relocated large numbers of individuals. It allows the production of endangered plants in nature, but sought after by collectors and amateurs (eg orchids it is no longer necessary to collect from the wild for sale for example).

Disadvantages: The increasing use of clones in the agriculture and forestry is an important source of biodiversity loss , and thereby weakening of species that are agricultural resources and livestock. Plans from clones or graft futures are often more fragile and susceptible to epidemics of pathogens, it is a fact already noted almost 200 years ago by a French official Grid Francis Joseph, who without employing the vocabulary of modern ecologists, protested against the already impoverished population genetics elm too readily cloned and / or grafted to the detriment of the wealth that enables adaptive seeding:

"planters elms very often go through the easiest, is to plant by shoot and root fragments, but they are fools and that they get stunted subjects who reported almost nothing . There are at first glance, the beauty of their port and the strength of their vegetation, Elms seedlings, and those with narrow leaves grafted on Scottish subjects, in amenity planting, parks, and lawns that surround the cottages' ^{[ 5]} . This genetic homogeneity actually may have contributed to the rapid explosion of the elm.

foresters such as Akira Miyawaki or school of forestry ProSilva have developed techniques aimed instead to use biodiversity to increase forest resilience, it also promoted by the Eco-label FSC Forest .

Ethical

The European Group on Ethics ^{[ 6]} concluded in its review: "Given the current level diseases and health problems of surrogate dams and animal clones, the group doubts that cloning animals for food is justified from an ethical standpoint. The question of whether this also applies to the offspring requires further scientific research. At present, the EGE does not see convincing arguments to justify food production from cloned animals and their offspring " ^{[ 7]} . This group also listed measures to be taken when introducing food from cloned animals into the EU.

Proponents of cloning livestock believe that it meets the challenges of agricultural research (animal breeding faster, save endangered breeds) and scientific (understanding the mechanisms of epigenetic regulation early stages of development embryo). The safety of food from cloned animals remains controversial, despite the publication of a favorable opinion of the Food and Drug Administration (U.S. federal agency responsible for monitoring the quality of food sold in the U.S. market) believing that " Meat and milk from cattle, swine and goat clones and the offspring of clones of species traditionally consumed as food, do not present more dangers than those from animals raised according to methods classic [...] The agency does not require labeling or any other additional measures, pour les aliments issus de clones de bovins, porcs ou chèvres clonés, ou de leur progéniture, car les aliments issus de ces sources ne diffèrent aucunement de ceux issus de bêtes élevées selon des méthodes classiques […] Étant donné que les clones seraient utilisés pour l'élevage, leur introduction dans la chaîne alimentaire ne se ferait pas en nombres importants. Au contraire, leur progéniture issue de la reproduction sexuelle serait utilisée pour la production de viande et de lait destinés à la commercialisation. À l'heure actuelle, l'agence continue de recommander que les aliments issus d'espèces clonées autres que les bovins, porcs et chèvres (ex. sheep) not be introduced into the food chain ".

early 2008, the EFSA (European Food Safety) prepare a new opinion on these issues ^{[ 8]} .

Evolutionary implications [edit ]

cloning by copying a genome, does not permit diversification and recombination of gene characteristic sexual reproduction. But this last is according to the theory of evolution means of adapting the Living and the biosphere to environmental changes, and the pledge of co-evolution of sexually reproducing organisms with that of their predators, pathogens and parasites .

Human cloning

Beyond technical issues within the general animal cloning, the cloning of human raises new philosophical problems, leading to the need for specific legislation. Some researchers working on human reproductive cloning. Without denying the technological feat that would constitute such an embodiment, the international trend appears to lean towards the ban, for now, research on the field. That said, a CNN poll ^{[ 9]} shows an ever-growing interest of public art. Arnold Schwarzenegger, Governor of California campaigned in favor of human cloning ^{[ 10]} . Opponents of cloning seem even more eager to reach an international consensus. The U.S., with over fifty other countries, have signed a call for a total ban on human cloning. Another text banning only reproductive cloning was prepared by the Belgium and supported by over twenty countries, including Russia the Japan, the United Kingdom the South Korea and Denmark. The search for human reproductive cloning still expresses a quest fantasy, man, for his immortality.

End 2002, the firm Clonaid, the Raelian movement associated , said he made the cloning of human beings but no scientific evidence of their existence was made.

It is scientifically accepted that the identity of being not just its genotype, which means it is impossible to produce two identical beings simply duplicates a genome. The case of identical twins (monozygotic called), which can be technically related to the clone, can be considered an example of human cloning in the sense that the principle of sexual reproduction between two parents is provided naturally, without technological intervention, and after brewing genetics.

But all this raises ethical questions , philosophical and religious important at the beginning of XXI th century leading to much debate.

This new generation has, for example legal difficulties concerning the legal status of the clone. Especially when we speak of "therapeutic" cloning, which implies that the clone is placed at the service of others through its partial destruction or total. From this point of view, certain ethical questions can join those of abortion.

In May 2005, researchers from South Korea and UK announced the first cloning of human embryos for therapeutic research.

In 2008, American researchers, businesses Stemagen and Reproductive Science Center, announced that they had obtained three cloned embryos from adult cells (skin cells) and enucleated oocytes. This is the first time that embryos are obtained from cells that are not stem cells .

source: wikipedia

What To Take For Fatigue And Cloudy Head

Plant Tissue Culture Techniques I Choice of explant I Applications I

Plant tissue culture Plant tissue culture

is a practice Used To propagate plants under sterile conditions , or at to produce clones of a plant. Different techniques in plant tissue culture may offer certain advantages over traditional methods of propagation, including:

• The production of exact copies of plants that produce particularly good flowers, fruits, or have other desirable traits.
• To quickly produce mature plants.
• The production of multiples of plants in the absence of seeds or necessary pollinators to produce seeds .
• The regeneration of whole plants from plant cells that have been genetically modified .
• The production of plants in sterile containers that allows them to be moved with greatly reduced chances of transmitting diseases, pests, and pathogens.
• The production of plants from seeds that otherwise have very low chances of germinating and growing, i.e.: orchids and nepenthes .
• To clean particular plant of viral and other infections and to quickly multiply these plants as 'cleaned stock' for horticulture and agriculture.

Plant tissue culture relies on the fact that many plant cells have the ability to regenerate a whole plant ( totipotency ). Single cells, plant cells without cell walls ( protoplasts ), pieces of leaves, or (less commonly) roots can often be used to generate a new plant on culture media given the required nutrients and plant hormones .

Techniques

Modern plant tissue culture is performed under aseptic conditions under filtered air. Living plant materials from the environment are naturally contaminated on their surfaces (and sometimes interiors) with microorganisms, so surface sterilization of starting materials ( explants ) in chemical solutions (usually alcohol or bleach) is required. Mercuric chloride is seldom used as a plant sterilant today, as it is dangerous to use, and is difficult to dispose of. Explants are then usually placed on the surface of a solid culture medium, but are sometimes placed directly into a liquid medium, particularly when cell suspension cultures are desired. Solid and liquid media are generally composed of inorganic salts plus a few organic nutrients, vitamins and plant hormones. Solid media are prepared from liquid media with the addition of a gelling agent, usually purified agar.

In-vitro tissue culture potato explants

The composition of the LABAMBA

Choice of explant

The tissue which is obtained from the plant to culture is called an explant . Based on work with certain model systems, particularly tobacco, it has often been claimed that a totipotent explant can be grown from any part of the plant. However, this concept has been vitiated in practice. In many species explants of various organs vary in their rates of growth and regeneration, while some do not grow at all. The choice of explant material also determines if the plantlets developed via tissue culture are haploid or diploid . Also the risk of microbial contamination is increased with inappropriate explants. Thus it is very important that an appropriate choice of explant be made prior to tissue culture.

The specific differences in the regeneration potential of different organs and explants have various explanations. The significant factors include differences in the stage of the cells in the cell cycle, the availability of or ability to transport endogenous growth regulators, and the metabolic capabilities of the cells. The most commonly used tissue explants are the meristematic ends of the plants like the stem tip, auxiliary bud tip and root tip. These tissues have high rates of cell division and either concentrate or produce required growth regulating substances including auxins and cytokinins .

Some explants, like the root tip, are hard to isolate and are contaminated with soil microflora that become problematic during the tissue culture process. Certain soil microflora can form tight associations with the root systems, or even grow within the root. Soil particles bound to roots are difficult to remove without injury to the roots that then allows microbial attack. These associated microflora will generally overgrow the tissue culture medium before there is significant growth of plant tissue.

Aerial (above soil) explants are also rich in undesirable microflora . However, they are more easily removed from the explant by gentle rinsing, and the remainder usually can be killed by surface sterilization. Most of the surface microflora do not form tight associations with the plant tissue. Such associations can usually be found by visual inspection as a mosaic, de-colorization or localized necrosis on the surface of the explant.

An alternative for obtaining uncontaminated explants is to take explants from seedlings which are aseptically grown from surface-sterilized seeds. The hard surface of the seed is less permeable to penetration of harsh surface sterilizing agents, such as hypochlorite, so the acceptable conditions of sterilization used for seeds can be much more stringent than for vegetative tissues.

Applications

Plant tissue culture is used widely in plant science; it also has a number of commercial applications. Applications include:

• Micropropagation is widely used in forestry and in floriculture. Micropropagation can also be used to conserve rare or endangered plant species.
• A plant breeder may use tissue culture to screen cells rather than plants for advantageous characters, e.g. herbicide resistance/tolerance.
• Large-scale growth of plant cells in liquid culture inside bioreactors as a source of secondary products, like recombinant proteins used as biopharmaceuticals .
• To cross distantly related species by protoplast fusion and regeneration of the novel hybrid .
• To cross-pollinate distantly related species and then tissue culture the resulting embryo which would otherwise normally die ( Embryo Rescue).
• For production of doubled monoploid plants from haploid cultures to achieve homozygous lines more rapidly in breeding programmes, usually by treatment with colchicine which causes doubling of the chromosome number.
• As a tissue for transformation, followed by either short-term testing of genetic constructs or regeneration of transgenic plants.
• Certain techniques such as meristem tip culture may be employed that can be used to produce clean plant material from virused stock, such as potatoes and many species of soft fruit.

• micropropagation using meristem and shoot culture to produce large numbers of identical individuals
• screening programmes of cells, rather than plants for advantageous characters
• large-scale growth of plant cells in liquid culture as a source of secondary products
• crossing distantly related species by protoplast fusion and regeneration of the novel hybrid
• production of dihaploid plants from haploid cultures to achieve homozygous lines more rapidly in breeding programmes
• as a tissue for transformation, followed by either short-term testing of genetic constructs or regeneration of transgenic plants
• removal of viruses by propagation from meristematic tissues

Laboratories

Although some growers and nurseries have their own labs for propagating plants via tissue culture, a number of independent laboratories provide custom propagation services. The Plant Tissue Culture Information Exchange lists many commercial tissue culture labs. Since plant tissue Labour culture is a very intensive process, this Would Be an important factor in Determining Which Would Be Commercially viable plants to propagate in a laboratory.

source: wikipedia

Adjusting Polaris Suspension

Human Cloning Cloning extinct and endangered I cloning from the religious point of view I

human cloning

Human cloning is the creation of a genetically identical copy of a copy of a current or former human being. There are two types of human cloning:

-therapeutic cloning.

-reproductive cloning.

Therapeutic cloning involves cloning cells an adult for later use in medicine (as seen in the section on therapeutic cloning).

Reproductive cloning would involve the complete cloning of a human being. This type of cloning has not been done yet in humans.

A third type of cloning would be the cloning of replacement would be a combination of reproductive cloning and therapeutic cloning. In this type of cloning would produce partial cloning of a tissue or part of a human need for a transplant.

In January 2008, Andrew Wood announced that created 5 human embryos using DNA from skin cells of adults in order to provide a viable source of embryonic stem cells but was raised that this was an ethical and legal, so they were destroyed.

The purpose of human cloning research has never been to clone people or creating babies reserve. ^{[ 2 ]} The research aims to obtain stem cells to cure diseases. ^{[ 3 ]}

course have published the results of cloning research for human and animal stem cells and, like all other scientific discoveries, these publications are available worldwide.

These individuals not employed by any university, hospital or government institution. ^{[citation needed ]} In general, the worldwide scientific community is strongly opposed to any hypothesis of cloning a baby.

According to John Kilner, president of Centre for Bioethics and Human Dignity in the U.S. , "Most of the published research shows that the death or maiming of the clone are very likely results in cloning of mammals. " ^{[citation needed ]}

Nobody knows how far advanced the truly human cloning babies. In April 2002 the Italian scientist Dr. Severino Antinori made a cuff remark to a reporter, saying that three women were pregnant with a cloned embryo. Since then he departed from under the stage lights and never had the opportunity to confirm or deny this comment. Although it is true, or attempt had failed, giving the impression that Antinori intends to try to clone a human baby in the near future. ^{[ citation needed]}

physicians assess the risks of human cloning as very high. ^{[citation needed ]}

"Submission to the cloning of humans does not mean assuming an unknown risk, but deliberately hurt people," says Kilner. ^{[citation needed ]}

Most scientists are of the same opinion. ^{[citation needed ]} Most attempts at cloning of animal embryos resulted deformed or abortions after implantation. ^{[citation needed ]} They argue that few cloned animals have birth defects are not detectable through analysis or tests in the uterus, for example, the deformations in the lining of the lungs.

In 1996, he cloned the sheep Dolly . It was the first mammal cloned from DNA derived from an adult rather than using DNA from an embryo. But while Dolly has a healthy, questioning the possibility that grew old rather than a normal sheep. ^{[citation needed ]} also 277 embryos were needed to produce this birth.

Cloning extinct and endangered

Cloning extinct species, has been a dream for many científicos.Uno the objectives set for cloning was the woolly mammoth, but attempts to extract DNA from frozen mammoths have been unsuccessful, although a Russian-Japanese team is working on it.

In 2001, a cow named Bessie gave birth to a gaur (Indian bison) cloned from Asia, an endangered species, but the calf died after two days.

In 2003, a banteng (bull type) was successfully cloned, in addition were also successfully cloned three wild beasts of Africa from frozen embryos. These successes have given hope to the possibility that extinct species can be cloned. Faced with this possibility, the tissue samples from the last ibex (mountain goat) were frozen rapidly after death.

Researchers are also considering cloning endangered species like the giant panda, ocelot, and cheetah.

In 2002, geneticists at the Australian Museum announced that had replicated DNA of the Tasmanian Tiger, extinct for 65 years with the chain reaction of polymerase. However in 2005, had to stop the project because the cells were not well preserved.

One obstacle in the attempt to clone extinct species is the need to maintain the DNA in perfect condition, very well preserved.

cloning from the religious point of view

Catholic Religion

Tras la intervención realizada por los científicos Ian Wilmut y Keith Campbell en la Oveja Dolly , el Vaticano publicó un documento titulado Reflexiones sobre la clonación . En este documento se da una condena firme de cualquier experimentación con seres humanos o con sus células con fines de clonación humana: ^{[ 4 ]}

La clonación humana se incluye en el proyecto del eugenismo y, por tanto, está expuesta a todas las observaciones éticas y jurídicas que lo han condenado ampliamente.
'Pontificia Academia Pro Vita (The Vatican, 1997): Reflections on human cloning , chap. 3.

The conviction that the Catholic Church makes human cloning on the fact that such a scientific technique manipulates and exclude the Catholic belief in the inherent relationality and complementarity of human procreation, instrumentalizaría the embryo and the woman has to carry the cloned individual in her uterus and pervert the fundamental relations of the human person (the self's relation) from the point of view of the Catholic religion. Attached to it all, the document indicates that cloning reaffirms the view that religious individuals can dominate the existence of other even programming their biological identity, which no person has the right to do. Finally, the Catholic Church supports the theory that allowing human cloning would be a violation of the fundamental principles of human rights, equality between human beings and non-discrimination.

source: wikipedia

Point And Shoot Fast Shutter L

Molecular cloning Cloning Cloning I Cloning cellular organisms I naturally

Cloning

The cloning (from the Greek κλων , which means offspring) can be defined as the process that achieves identical copies of an organism, cell or molecule and developed asexually. ^{[ 1 ]}

should take into account the following characteristics:

"First cloned molecules is required and you can not make an organ or part of the" clone "if not with the molecules that form such a being, but of course to make a clone need to know what we want to clone (see molecular cloning)

- Being part of an animal and developed because cloning responds to an interest for obtaining copies of a specific animal that interests us, and only when an adult know their characteristics.

- On the other hand, attempt to create asexually. Sexual reproduction allows us to get identical copies, as this type of reproduction by its very nature generates diversity.

Molecular cloning

molecular cloning is used in a wide variety of biological experiments and practical applications ranging from fingerprinting to production of large-scale protein .

In practice, the to amplify any sequence in a living organism, the sequence to be cloned must be linked to an origin of replication, which is a DNA sequence capable of directing this process, and certain other features are needed and a variety of cloning vectors

cloning of any DNA fragment essentially involves four steps:

- Fragmentation: The broken fragments of interest from a string of DNA.

- Ligation : They attach the DNA fragments in the desired sequence.

- Transfection : Enter the sequence formed within cells.

- Selection : Finally, select the cells that have been transfected successfully with the new DNA.

Initially, the DNA of interest need to be isolated from a DNA segment of suitable size. Subsequently, ligation process occurs when the amplified fragment was inserted into a cloning vector : The vector is linearized (as it is circular), using restriction enzymes and then incubated under appropriate conditions the DNA fragment of interest and the vector with the enzyme DNA ligase. After ligation of vector with the insert of interest, transfection occurs within cells for this purpose transfected cells are cultured; this process is the process step, as it is the part where we see whether the cells were transfected successfully or not.

We therefore identify transfected cells and untransfected, modern cloning vectors exist including markers of resistance to antibiotics that can only have been transfected cells can grow. There are other cloning vectors which provide blue / white screening. Thus, the investigation of the colonies is needed to confirm that cloning was successful.

Cell cloning

Cloning a cell is to form a group of them from one. In the case of unicellular organisms such as bacteria and yeast, this process is very simple and only requires the inoculation of the right products.

However, in the case of cultured cells in multicellular organisms, cell cloning is a difficult task because these cells need a very specific environmental conditions.

A useful téctica tissue culture used to clone distinct lineages of cells is the use of cloning rings (cylinders).

According to this technique, a group of cells that have been exposed unicellular to a mutagenic agent or drug used to facilitate the selection is placed in a high dilution to create isolated colonies, each stemming from a single and potentially clonally distinct cell.

In the first stage of growth, when the colonies have only a few cells, are sterile polystyrene rings dipped in fat, and placed on a single colony with a small amount of trypsin.

The cloned cells are collected inside the ring and taken to a new container to continue its growth.

therapeutic cloning

Therapeutic cloning is therapeutic and involves obtaining stem cells from the patient to be treated, considering the following experiment: Take a somatic cell to treat any patient, isolate the nucleus with the chromosomes inside and everything else is discarded. On the other hand, we get an unfertilized egg and extract its nucleus with its chromosomes, so to include in it the previously isolated nucleus from the somatic cell. The following is stimulating the egg with the nucleus and cell division starting from the cloned embryo. This embryo is a clone of the patient to be treated. We let the embryo develops until the key stage, the blastocyst.

At this stage we extract the stem cells obtained from the cell mass that has the same DNA as the patient, and therefore will not cause rejection when injecting.

An example of this type of cloning is the cloning of Dolly (July 5, 1996 - February 14, 2003).

Cloning stem cell research:

The somatic cell nuclear transfer can also be used to create a cloned embryo. The goal is not to clone human beings, but (as already mentioned above) to harvest stem cells that can be used to study human development and studies on disease of interest.

Cloning bodies naturally

cloning of an organism is to create a new body with the same genetic information as an existing cell. A method of asexual reproduction where fertilization not occur. Overall, only one parent involved. This form of reproduction is common in organisms like amoeba and other unicellular organisms, although most plants and fungi also reproduce asexually. Also

include the acquisition of identical twins naturally or artificially. The natural way is considered a spontaneous alteration during embryonic development, ignoring their cause, although a statistically significant correlation family. The artificial method is performed by separation through manipulation of the blastomeres, weakening the cell junctions with trypsin and Ca-poor medium 2 +, or manually starting the blastocyst in half (very common in cows.)

source: wikipedia

Do I Have To Cook Deer Sausage?

biotecnologici I Biotechnology I settori Storia delle biotechnology I

Biotechnology

The general term of biotechnology ( biological technology) means all the technological applications of biology.

Among the definitions available, the most comprehensive is no doubt that stretched from the Convention on Biological Diversity A, namely:

"Biotechnology is the technological application that uses biological systems, the living organisms or derivatives of these to make or modify products or processes for a particular purpose. "

Biotechnology can also be defined as the use of living organisms in order to obtain goods or services.

In common parlance, the term is used more frequently in the plural ( Biotechnology), indicating the diversity of technologies developed and areas of application concerned.

Biotechnology is used in the food industry to optimize the role of microorganisms, known for centuries, in common food production. The more detailed knowledge (at the molecular level) of the processes of fermentation wine and beer and mechanisms of crossing and selection of varieties of animals and plants has resulted in recent decades, the food industry to be increasingly influenced by biotechnology.

There are also numerous applications in the field of bioremediation (treatment, recycling and reclamation of waste through active micro-organisms).

There are applications that, while not making use of micro-organisms, are classified as biotechnology. Biotechnology is in fact widely used in the development of new therapies or innovative medical diagnostic tools. The techniques of DNA and RNA microarray used in genetics and the radiotracers used in medicine are good examples.

biotechnology, are more often associated with the use of genetically modified organisms. Microorganisms such as Escherichia coli or some yeasts can be used for the synthesis of substances like insulin or antibiotics. Although genetically modified mammalian cells are widely used in the biosynthesis of drugs. Promising new applications are linked to the biosynthesis of medicines through plants.

Applications at the center of debate are those suitable for producing transgenic animals and plants (such as BT corn) known to all as GMOs.

biotechnology have replaced the computer companies in the portfolio of technology stocks listed on stock exchange (NASDAQ ). Of the 1300 biotechnology companies operating in the U.S. only 35 (3%) are active, others are at a loss. Despite this, stock prices are rising, as in the days of the bubble of the Net Economy, where share prices grew for all nineties to deflate and return to the prices of the previous decade.

The primary tool they use biotechnology, genetic engineering has. This discipline is committed to what concerns the gene cloning (cloning of genes of an organism), and their analysis required to construct or operate Genotec expression vectors in order to monitor activity Transcriptional \\ translational of a given protein of interest, for purposes of research or production. The public mistakenly believes that biotechnology makes use of somatic cloning, it is absolutely not true. Cloning gene copy is responsible for specific DNA sequences, unlike the somatic cloning (copying an organism from somatic cells), which is a manipulation of the reproductive system, which has no use for purposes of biotechnological purposes.

biotech

biotechnological applications are numerous. The following classification, very general, contains a number of areas as defined in international parlance.

Red biotechnology (Biotechnology red) is applied to the industry processes biomedical and pharmaceutical . Examples include the identification of organisms capable of synthesizing drugs or antibiotics , or the development of technologies genetic engineering to cure diseases.

White biotechnology, also known as gray biotechnology (white biotechnology and gray). It is the branch that deals with of biotechnological processes of industrial interest . For example, the establishment of micro-organisms capable of producing chemicals. The resources consumed by industrial processes like biotechnology are considerably smaller than traditional ones, which is why this area is expanding significantly.

Green biotechnology (Biotechnology green). It is the field applied to agricultural processes . Among the applications, include the modification of organisms to make them able to grow under certain environmental conditions or nutrition. The purpose of this field is to produce agricultural solutions with less environmental impact than the processes Farm Classic. For example, some have been engineered plants can produce their own pesticides, eliminating the need for external administration, more expensive and polluting. To this end it is produced, for example, BT corn . There is an ongoing debate about the actual eco-compatibility of these processes, as well as on the safety of genetically modified organisms (GMOs ).

Bioinformatics , sometimes known as computational biology . This is an interdisciplinary field that uses a computerized approach to solve problems for organic agriculture. Plays a crucial role in applications of functional genomics, structural genomics and proteomics. It has a fundamental role in the development of new drugs (drug discovery ).

On some occasions it also uses the term blue biotechnology (blue biotechnology ), used to describe the marine and aquatic applications of biotechnology.

History of biotechnology

• 8000 BC Collection of seed for a harvest. Confirmations in Mesopotamia frequent use intersection ( artificial selection) to improve the livestock .
• 6000 BC yeast used (eg in Egypt ) for the first fermentation to produce beer , bread and wine .
• 4000 BC Production yogurt and cheese by lactic bacteria fermenting type ( China).
• 1500 With the great geographical discoveries, wide distribution of plant species from the places of origin around the world.
• 1675 Anton van Leeuwenhoek discovered the existence of micro-organisms microscope.
• 1857 Gregor Mendel discovered the laws of inheritance
• Karl Ereky 1919, an agronomist Hungarian, uses for the first time the term biotechnology.
• 1953 James Watson and Francis Crick describe the double helix structure of DNA .
• 1972 The composition of the human DNA was found to be 99% identical to that of chimpanzees and gorillas .
• 1975 Kohler and Milstein finalize the production of monoclonal antibodies
• eighties developed recombinant DNA technology . The bacterium Escherichia coli prokaryotic is engineered to produce molecules such as' insulin in human form (about 5% of diabetics you are allergic to insulin of animal origin given above).
• 1983 Kary B. Mullis he perfected the technique of polymerase chain reaction ( Polymerase Chain Reaction or PCR), which will revolutionize the world of biotechnology.
• 1994 The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approves the first genetically modified food: tomato "Flavr Savr".

• 1997 The working group led by Ian Wilmut Roslin Institute of Scotland clones for the first time a large mammal, a sheep (Dolly ), using the DNA of two cells of adult sheep.
• 2000 The Human Genome Project completed the .
• 2002 is sequenced the entire genome of the plant rice, the main source of nutrition for two thirds of world population. Rice is the first species of agricultural use to be fully sequenced.
• May 2007 shall be deposited with the U.S. Patent & Trademark Office patent number 20070122826, entitled "Minimal bacterial genome "ovvero l'essere vivente con il più piccolo corredo genetico, capace di vita propria.

source: wikipedia